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Finally those are passed to the muxer, which writes the encoded packets to the output file. Before encoding, ffmpeg can process raw audio and video frames using filters from the libavfilter library.

Several chained filters form a filter graph. Simple filtergraphs are those that have exactly one input and output, both of the same type.

In the above diagram they can be represented by simply inserting an additional step between decoding and encoding:. Simple filtergraphs are configured with the per-stream -filter option with -vf and -af aliases for video and audio respectively. A simple filtergraph for video can look for example like this:.

Note that some filters change frame properties but not frame contents. Another example is the setpts filter, which only sets timestamps and otherwise passes the frames unchanged. Complex filtergraphs are those which cannot be described as simply a linear processing chain applied to one stream. They can be represented with the following diagram:.

Note that this option is global, since a complex filtergraph, by its nature, cannot be unambiguously associated with a single stream or file. A trivial example of a complex filtergraph is the overlay filter, which has two video inputs and one video output, containing one video overlaid on top of the other. Its audio counterpart is the amix filter.

Stream copy is a mode selected by supplying the copy parameter to the -codec option. It makes ffmpeg omit the decoding and encoding step for the specified stream, so it does only demuxing and muxing. It is useful for changing the container format or modifying container-level metadata.

The diagram above will, in this case, simplify to this:. Since there is no decoding or encoding, it is very fast and there is no quality loss. However, it might not work in some cases because of many factors. Applying filters is obviously also impossible, since filters work on uncompressed data.

Users can skip -map and let ffmpeg perform automatic stream selection as described below. The sub-sections that follow describe the various rules that are involved in stream selection. The examples that follow next show how these rules are applied in practice. While every effort is made to accurately reflect the behavior of the program, FFmpeg is under continuous development and the code may have changed since the time of this writing.

In the absence of any map options for a particular output file, ffmpeg inspects the output format to check which type of streams can be included in it, viz. For each acceptable stream type, ffmpeg will pick one stream, when available, from among all the inputs.

In the case where several streams of the same type rate equally, the stream with the lowest index is chosen. Data or attachment streams are not automatically selected and can only be included using -map. When -map is used, only user-mapped streams are included in that output file, with one possible exception for filtergraph outputs described below.

If there are any complex filtergraph output streams with unlabeled pads, they will be added to the first output file. This will lead to a fatal error if the stream type is not supported by the output format. In the absence of the map option, the inclusion of these streams leads to the automatic stream selection of their types being skipped.

If map options are present, these filtergraph streams are included in addition to the mapped streams. Stream handling is independent of stream selection, with an exception for subtitles described below. Stream handling is set via the -codec option addressed to streams within a specific output file.

In particular, codec options are applied by ffmpeg after the stream selection process and thus do not influence the latter. If no -codec option is specified for a stream type, ffmpeg will select the default encoder registered by the output file muxer. An exception exists for subtitles. If a subtitle encoder is specified for an output file, the first subtitle stream found of any type, text or image, will be included.

This applies generally as well: when the user sets an encoder manually, the stream selection process cannot check if the encoded stream can be muxed into the output file. If it cannot, ffmpeg will abort and all output files will fail to be processed.

There are three output files specified, and for the first two, no -map options are set, so ffmpeg will select streams for these two files automatically. For video, it will select stream 0 from B. For audio, it will select stream 3 from B. For subtitles, it will select stream 2 from B.

For out3. The -map 1:a option will select all audio streams from the second input B. No other streams will be included in this output file. For the first two outputs, all included streams will be transcoded. The encoders chosen will be the default ones registered by each output format, which may not match the codec of the selected input streams. For the third output, codec option for audio streams has been set to copy , so no decoding-filtering-encoding operations will occur, or can occur.

Packets of selected streams shall be conveyed from the input file and muxed within the output file. Although out1. The subtitle stream of C. However, in out2. The presence of -an disables audio stream selection for out2.

The overlay filter requires exactly two video inputs, but none are specified, so the first two available video streams are used, those of A. The output pad of the filter has no label and so is sent to the first output file out1. Due to this, automatic selection of the video stream is skipped, which would have selected the stream in B.

The audio stream with most channels viz. The 2nd output file, out2. So, even though the first subtitle stream available belongs to C. The selected stream, stream 2 in B. The above command will fail, as the output pad labelled [outv] has been mapped twice. None of the output files shall be processed.

The video stream from B. Then a copy each is mapped to the first and third output files. The overlay filter, requiring two video inputs, uses the first two unused video streams. Those are the streams from A. The aresample filter is sent the first unused audio stream, that of A. Since this filter output is also unlabelled, it too is mapped to the first output file. The presence of -an only suppresses automatic or manual stream selection of audio streams, not outputs sent from filtergraphs.

Both these mapped streams shall be ordered before the mapped stream in out1. The video, audio and subtitle streams mapped to out2. Options which do not take arguments are boolean options, and set the corresponding value to true.

They can be set to false by prefixing the option name with "no". For example using "-nofoo" will set the boolean option with name "foo" to false. Some options are applied per-stream, e. Stream specifiers are used to precisely specify which stream s a given option belongs to. A stream specifier is a string generally appended to the option name and separated from it by a colon.

Therefore, it would select the ac3 codec for the second audio stream. A stream specifier can match several streams, so that the option is applied to all of them. An empty stream specifier matches all streams. For example, -codec copy or -codec: copy would copy all the streams without reencoding. Matches the stream with this index. Stream numbering is based on the order of the streams as detected by libavformat except when a program ID is also specified. In this case it is based on the ordering of the streams in the program.

Otherwise, it matches all streams of the specified type. Matches streams with the metadata tag key having the specified value. If value is not given, matches streams that contain the given tag with any value. Matches streams with usable configuration, the codec must be defined and the essential information such as video dimension or audio sample rate must be present.

Show help. An optional parameter may be specified to print help about a specific item. If no argument is specified, only basic non advanced tool options are shown. Print complete list of options, including shared and private options for encoders, decoders, demuxers, muxers, filters, etc.

Use the -decoders option to get a list of all decoders. Use the -encoders option to get a list of all encoders. Use the -formats option to get a list of all demuxers and muxers. Use the -formats option to get a list of all muxers and demuxers. Use the -filters option to get a list of all filters. Use the -bsfs option to get a list of all bitstream filters.

Use the -protocols option to get a list of all protocols. Show autodetected sources of the input device. Some devices may provide system-dependent source names that cannot be autodetected. The returned list cannot be assumed to be always complete. Show autodetected sinks of the output device. Some devices may provide system-dependent sink names that cannot be autodetected.

Indicates that repeated log output should not be compressed to the first line and the "Last message repeated n times" line will be omitted. Indicates that log output should add a [level] prefix to each message line. This can be used as an alternative to log coloring, e. Only show fatal errors which could lead the process to crash, such as an assertion failure. This is not currently used for anything. Show all warnings and errors.

Any message related to possibly incorrect or unexpected events will be shown. Show informative messages during processing. This is in addition to warnings and errors. This is the default value. For example to enable repeated log output, add the level prefix, and set loglevel to verbose :.

Another example that enables repeated log output without affecting current state of level prefix flag or loglevel :. By default the program logs to stderr. If coloring is supported by the terminal, colors are used to mark errors and warnings. This file can be useful for bug reports. It also implies -loglevel debug. For example, to output a report to a file named ffreport.

All FFmpeg tools will normally show a copyright notice, build options and library versions. This option can be used to suppress printing this information. Allows setting and clearing cpu flags.

This option is intended for testing. Override detection of CPU count. Exercise extreme caution when using this option. These options are provided directly by the libavformat, libavdevice and libavcodec libraries. To see the list of available AVOptions, use the -help option.

They are separated into two categories:. These options can be set for any container, codec or device. These options are specific to the given container, device or codec.

For example to write an ID3v2. In the above example, a multichannel audio stream is mapped twice for output. The first instance is encoded with codec ac3 and bitrate k. The second instance is downmixed to 2 channels and encoded with codec aac. A bitrate of k is specified for it using absolute index of the output stream.

Force input or output file format. The format is normally auto detected for input files and guessed from the file extension for output files, so this option is not needed in most cases. Set number of times input stream shall be looped. Loop 0 means no loop, loop -1 means infinite loop. Allow forcing a decoder of a different media type than the one detected or designated by the demuxer. Useful for decoding media data muxed as data streams.

Select an encoder when used before an output file or a decoder when used before an input file for one or more streams. When used as an input option before -i , limit the duration of data read from the input file. When used as an output option before an output url , stop writing the output after its duration reaches duration. Stop writing the output or reading the input at position.

Set the file size limit, expressed in bytes. No further chunk of bytes is written after the limit is exceeded. The size of the output file is slightly more than the requested file size. When used as an input option before -i , seeks in this input file to position. Note that in most formats it is not possible to seek exactly, so ffmpeg will seek to the closest seek point before position. When used as an output option before an output url , decodes but discards input until the timestamps reach position.

Like the -ss option but relative to the "end of file". That is negative values are earlier in the file, 0 is at EOF. This will take the difference between the start times of the target and reference inputs and offset the timestamps of the target file by that difference.

The source timestamps of the two inputs should derive from the same clock source for expected results. If either of the inputs has no starting timestamp then no sync adjustment is made. Acceptable values are those that refer to a valid ffmpeg input index. If the sync reference is the target index itself or -1 , then no adjustment is made to target timestamps.

A sync reference may not itself be synced to any other input. The offset is added to the timestamps of the input files. Specifying a positive offset means that the corresponding streams are delayed by the time duration specified in offset. It is also possible to delete metadata by using an empty value. By default, the disposition is copied from the input stream, unless the output stream this option applies to is fed by a complex filtergraph - in that case the disposition is unset by default.

Otherwise the first item is not prefixed this options overrides the default value. It is also possible to clear the disposition by setting it to 0.

To make the second subtitle stream the default stream and remove the default disposition from the first subtitle stream:. Specify target file type vcd , svcd , dvd , dv , dv All the format options bitrate, codecs, buffer sizes are then set automatically. You can just type:. Nevertheless you can specify additional options as long as you know they do not conflict with the standard, as in:. The dv50 target is identical to the dv target except that the pixel format set is yuvp for all three standards.

Any user-set value for a parameter above will override the target preset value. In that case, the output may not comply with the target standard. As an input option, blocks all data streams of a file from being filtered or being automatically selected or mapped for any output. See -discard option to disable streams individually. As an output option, disables data recording i. For full manual control see the -map option.

Set the number of data frames to output. This is an obsolete alias for -frames:d , which you should use instead. Use fixed quality scale VBR. In the filtergraph, the input is associated to the label in , and the output to the label out.

See the ffmpeg-filters manual for more information about the filtergraph syntax. This option is similar to -filter , the only difference is that its argument is the name of the file from which a filtergraph description is to be read. This boolean option determines if the filtergraph s to which this stream is fed gets reinitialized when input frame parameters change mid-stream. This option is enabled by default as most video and all audio filters cannot handle deviation in input frame properties.

Upon reinitialization, existing filter state is lost, like e. Any frames buffered at time of reinitialization are lost. The properties where a change triggers reinitialization are, for video, frame resolution or pixel format; for audio, sample format, sample rate, channel count or channel layout.

Defines how many threads are used to process a filter pipeline. Each pipeline will produce a thread pool with this many threads available for parallel processing. The default is the number of available CPUs. It is on by default, to explicitly disable it you need to specify -nostats. Progress information is written periodically and at the end of the encoding process. The last key of a sequence of progress information is always "progress".

Enable interaction on standard input. On by default unless standard input is used as an input. To explicitly disable interaction you need to specify -nostdin. Disabling interaction on standard input is useful, for example, if ffmpeg is in the background process group.

Roughly the same result can be achieved with ffmpeg Print timestamp information. It is off by default. This option is mostly useful for testing and debugging purposes, and the output format may change from one version to another, so it should not be employed by portable scripts. Add an attachment to the output file. This is supported by a few formats like Matroska for e.

Attachments are implemented as a specific type of stream, so this option will add a new stream to the file. It is then possible to use per-stream options on this stream in the usual way. Attachment streams created with this option will be created after all the other streams i. Extract the matching attachment stream into a file named filename. If filename is empty, then the value of the filename metadata tag will be used.

Technical note — attachments are implemented as codec extradata, so this option can actually be used to extract extradata from any stream, not just attachments. Set the number of video frames to output. This is an obsolete alias for -frames:v , which you should use instead.

As an input option, ignore any timestamps stored in the file and instead generate timestamps assuming constant frame rate fps. This is not the same as the -framerate option used for some input formats like image2 or v4l2 it used to be the same in older versions of FFmpeg.

If in doubt use -framerate instead of the input option -r. As an output option, duplicate or drop input frames to achieve constant output frame rate fps. Clamps output frame rate when output framerate is auto-set and is higher than this value. Useful in batch processing or when input framerate is wrongly detected as very high. It cannot be set together with -r. It is ignored during streamcopy. As an output option, this inserts the scale video filter to the end of the corresponding filtergraph.

Please use the scale filter directly to insert it at the beginning or some other place. For example "", "", "1. If used together with -vcodec copy , it will affect the aspect ratio stored at container level, but not the aspect ratio stored in encoded frames, if it exists.

As an input option, blocks all video streams of a file from being filtered or being automatically selected or mapped for any output. As an output option, disables video recording i. Select the pass number 1 or 2. It is used to do two-pass video encoding. The statistics of the video are recorded in the first pass into a log file see also the option -passlogfile , and in the second pass that log file is used to generate the video at the exact requested bitrate.

On pass 1, you may just deactivate audio and set output to null, examples for Windows and Unix:. This is an alias for -filter:v , see the -filter option. Automatically rotate the video according to file metadata. Enabled by default, use -noautorotate to disable it. Automatically scale the video according to the resolution of first frame.

Enabled by default, use -noautoscale to disable it. Therefore, it is not recommended to disable it unless you really know what you are doing.

Disable autoscale at your own risk. Set pixel format. If the selected pixel format can not be selected, ffmpeg will print a warning and select the best pixel format supported by the encoder. Rate control override for specific intervals, formatted as "int,int,int" list separated with slashes. Two first values are the beginning and end frame numbers, last one is quantizer to use if positive, or quality factor if negative. Use this option if your input file is interlaced and you want to keep the interlaced format for minimum losses.

The alternative is to deinterlace the input stream by use of a filter such as yadif or bwdif , but deinterlacing introduces losses. Calculate PSNR of compressed frames. LibriVox is a hope, an experiment, and a question: can the net harness a bunch of volunteers to help bring books in the public domain to life through podcasting?

LibriVox volunteers record chapters of books in the public domain, and then we release the audio files back onto the net.

We are a totally volunteer, open source, free content, public domain project. LibriVox volunteers narrate, proof listen, and upload chapters of books and other textual works in the public domain. These projects are then made available on the Internet for everyone to enjoy, for free. There are many, many things you can do to help, so please feel free to jump into the Forum and ask what you can do to help! Any bilingual speaker or translator will have noticed that there exist two types of proverbs.

On the one hand, there are those proverbs that have the same meaning but different structures, vocabulary, and metaphors, and they consequently have different origins in their respective languages. Whoever needs to translate one of these texts would have to know the quite different equivalent in the target language or find it in a dictionary. Regional proverbs become especially diffi- cult translation problems, since possible equivalents are often missing from dictionaries that tend to include only the more common proverbs.

On the other hand, many proverbs are identical not only in German and English but in most Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages of Europe, and these do not present any particular translation problem.

In other words, there exist general European proverbs, that is proverbs that have been disseminated through precise loan translations throughout Europe. That is why Emanuel Strauss could publish his three-volume Dictionary of European Proverbs and why Gyula Paczolay could follow suit with his invaluable collec- tion of European Proverbs in 55 Languages , to name but two of the many polyglot proverb collections.

But how can all of this be explained? Since when do these common European proverbs exist, of which many also made it to North America with the waves of immigrants?

Four sources for the distribution of European proverbs can be identified similar issues have occurred in the dissemination of proverbs in Asian, African, and other linguistic and cultural groups.

There is first of all Greek and Roman antiquity, whose proverbial wisdom found a broad geographical dissemination primarily through the Latin language. The scholarly study of proverbs begins with Aristotle, and many Greek proverbs have been found in the works of Plato, Sophocles, Homer, Aristophanes, Aeschylus, Euripides, and so on.

An- cient writers also added new Latin proverbs, and many of these classical texts became part of a rich medieval Latin proverb tradition. More importantly, however, these common Latin texts were then translated into the many de- veloping European languages.

Erasmus of Rotterdam played a major role in spreading this classical and medieval wisdom throughout Europe by means of the many editions of his Adagia ff. His works were read and translated, and he himself had also shown interest in early Dutch regional proverbs.

The same is true for Martin Luther in Germany, who was a masterful translator of classical proverbs but who also employed indigenous German proverbs in his writings see Cornette []. Latin proverbs were used in school translation exercises, and many of them entered the various languages through oral chan- nels, thus spreading classical wisdom through the written and spoken word all over Europe.

By way of English they traveled on to Australia, Canada, the United States, and the rest of the world where English is used as a second lan- guage.

Some of these proverbs have truly taken on an international and global currency, showing once again that they contain universal human experiences and insights. There is then no doubt that a considerable corpus of common European proverbs can be traced back to classical times. Since they were loan translated from the same sources, they exist in the many languages of Europe in identi- cal forms. Their general use in present-day Europe and beyond indicates a strong intellectual, ethical, and human bond among people.

All of these texts express general human wisdom without any specific national or ethnic refer- ences. And since they are basically identical in all languages, they are and will continue to be effective modes of metaphorical communication among Eu- ropeans, North Americans, and other peoples. A second source of proverbs for the entire European continent and beyond is the Bible, whose proverbs date back to classical antiquity and early wisdom literature.

As a widely translated book, the Bible had a major influence on the distribution of common proverbs since the various translators were dealing with the same texts. Several dozen biblical proverbs are thus current in iden- tical wordings in many European languages, even though speakers might not remember that they are employing proverbs from the Bible. It is im- portant to mention, however, that the number of biblical proverbs in various European languages is not identical.

Much depended on the linguistic skills of the translators. In the case of Martin Luther, quite a few of his German for- mulations have actually become proverbial without having been proverbs in the original text. The third source for common European proverbs is medieval Latin. It must not be forgotten that the Latin language of the Middle Ages had the sta- tus of a lingua franca, and as such it developed new proverbs that cannot be traced back to classical times.

Many medieval Latin proverbs in their exact translations have spread to Eu- ropean languages, and they certainly belong to some of the most popular proverbs today. In an Estonian proverb the city is St. Petersburg, a Finnish proverb refers to the old capital Turku, a Russian proverb mentions Moscow, and a Turkish proverb names Mecca.

It probably exists, but has simply not been recorded yet. As for one speaker, I know that I have used this variant from time to time when discussing national politics. The fourth source for common European proverbs reverses the historical move of proverbs from Europe to the United States. Willy Brandt, the renowned European politician, changed this proverb in a loan translation to fit the European context. The time of holiday-Europeanness is over, Europe is our normal work- day.

In any case, the United States and its English language are not only spreading new words throughout Europe and the rest of the world, they are also disseminating new proverbs from popular culture music, film, etc. While proverbs are complete thoughts that can stand by themselves, there are such subgenres as proverbial expressions, proverbial comparisons, proverbial exaggerations, and twin binary formulas, which are fragmentary and for the most part metaphorical phrases that must be inte- grated into a sentence.

They might be partially correct in these admonitions, especially when their students overuse them. But an occasional proverbial statement at the right place and time is quite appropriate for emphasis and colorful imagery. Churchill to see that they made repeated and effective use of proverbial lan- guage see Bryan and Mieder ; Mieder and Bryan Proverbial exaggerations can also take on important stylistic functions, es- pecially if one wants to ridicule a person or situation.

Such exaggerations usu- ally describe the extraordinary degree to which someone or something possesses a certain characteristic.

But still, these phrases are certainly more entertaining and creative than some of the stan- dard curses based on scatological expletives. But they are proverbial in that they are traditional and metaphorical, being employed even more frequently than actual proverbs. While they supply colorful elements of folk speech to oral and writ- ten communication, they cannot take on an existence by themselves. Em- ploying a metaphor from the building trade, one might say that proverbs are the bricks, while proverbial phrases are the mortar.

Definition and Classification 15 But proverbs can at times hit people like a hard brick with their continu- ous claim of moral authority and didactic intent. While the folk has usually accepted proverbs at face value, eagerly handing them on from generation to generation, there have obviously also been moments where people have been fed up with all of this straightforward wisdom.

Some comic relief was de- sired, and just as tall tales provide an outlet for folk humor in the realm of folk narratives, so-called wellerisms are replete with humor, irony, and satire.

Wellerisms consist of a triadic structure: 1 a statement often a proverb , 2 an identification of a speaker a person or animal , and 3 a phrase that places the statement into an unexpected situation. In the case where proverbs make up the first part, their claim to truth or wisdom is questioned by the resulting pun. Following the success of the novel in the nineteenth century, there was quite a craze of publishing made-up wellerisms in the British and American press.

Some of them were reprinted again and again and took on a life of their own as traditional wellerisms. But the genre was well estab- lished long before Dickens, and wellerisms have been recorded for centuries in many languages.

Wellerisms are thus clear indications that solid proverbs could serve as the start of some very basic humor. All of this is not to say that there are no folk proverbs that contain imagery from the vulgar tongue. It is a succinct text, it consists of a topic and a comment, it expresses a truth in metaphorical language, and it has definitely gained currency among my students. But it can also be heard among the older generation, leaving no doubt that it has be- come a bona fide proverb.

It will be interesting to see whether paremiogra- phers of the future will include the text in their proverb collections. Their earlier colleagues have left most proverbs of this type out of their compila- tions, an unfortunate example of censorship in light of the fact that folk proverbs do indeed contain elements of all aspects of life.

Fortunately Matti Kuusi — and subsequently his daughter Outi Lauhakangas have created an interna- tional classification system of proverbs that starts out with 13 main themes, which for the most part represent basic aspects of human life: A.

Practical knowledge of nature B. Faith and basic attitudes C. Basic observations and socio-logic D. The world and human life E. Sense of proportion F. Concepts of morality G. Social life H. Social interaction J. Social position L. Agreements and norms M. Coping and learning T. Time and sense of time Under the 13 main themes there are 52 main classes from A1 to T4.

Some subgroups register 7 or fewer proverb types, but there are also those subgroups that list 50 or more types. That is why we can speak of universal proverb types if we wish to compare them to our local proverb titles or proverb types in the narrowest sense of the word.

With the new classification system now finished, and with its in- clusion of universal proverb types, international studies of an individual proverb type can be carried out synchronically and diachronically as well as contextually, semantically, functionally, and so on. All are not hunters that blow the horn. There are more maids than Maukin and more men than Michael.

All are good maids, but whence come the bad wives? The classification system includes elaborate notations with incredible infor- mation and, above all, also cross-references to other proverb types. This takes care of the problem of the at times somewhat subjective assignment of proverbs to a certain position in the classification system.. And, to be sure, the computerized database does thank God! It has pri- marily been an attempt to find a practical way to arrange a large collec- tion of literature [i.

Lauhakangas 76 This is the way it should be! Yes, the classification system might not be the very best solution, but there is no better index at this time.

And perhaps there will never be another research team as that of Matti Kuusi and Outi Lauhakangas who would be willing to even attempt to work out a practical and international type system. It should gladly, enthusiastically, and thank- fully be accepted and worked with by international scholars.

It is indeed an open system that will permanently be under construction, and much work lies ahead for Outi Lauhakangas. Her father did indeed cast his net very widely regarding the hundreds of proverb collections used in es- tablishing the classification system. And yet, there are many older and above all newer major proverb collections waiting to be included in the database. Kingsbury, and Kelsie B. There is much work to be done, as Matti Kuusi knew and Outi Lauhakan- gas is only too aware of at this time.

She knows its structure and intricacies the best, and she can go on to expand the system in the most consistent way pos- sible, both according to the ideas of her father as well as her own. Even if the work on this international type system of proverbs were to stop completely at this time, paremiologists have a fantastic and beneficial research tool at their disposal for serious comparative proverb scholarship.

The work must go on, but doubtlessly the International Type System of Proverbs with its computer database will reign as the standard work in comparative paremiog- raphy and paremiology. Generations of scholars will benefit from this classifi- cation system as they continue to look for universal bits of human wisdom in the form of proverbs. But for most proverb research there are numerous extremely useful multilingual proverb collections available that simply list proverb equivalents.

The preferred setup is to list the proverbs al- phabetically by key word in the language of the compiler with the various for- eign language equivalents registered underneath.

The value of such collections is clearly enhanced if they also contain key-word indices of the proverbs in the target languages, making them accessible reference works es- pecially for translators.

While some collections do include sources and other scholarly references see for example Kuusi et al. De Die Liebe ist blind. Since the proverb goes back to classical antiquity, it actually entered many more languages that are included in those international proverb dic- tionaries that list additional foreign languages.

There is a second group of international proverb collections that has quite another purpose. Their compilers simply want to indicate what proverbs exist in other cultures about a certain theme.

The proverbs are all cited in transla- tion and the individual texts are not necessarily equivalents of each other. Harold V. Scottish Better to have than to wish. English Blessed are those who possess. Latin Everything goes to him who has nothing.

Chinese Great possessions are great cares. American So much as you have, so much are you sure of. Spanish To each his own. Latin Who has the hilt has the blade. A third group of international dictionaries again registers hundreds of proverbs from around the world in but one language, but this time each text contains the same key word and the individual proverbs are arranged alpha- betically. Spanish An ill life makes an ill end. Scottish All of life is a struggle.

Albanian Life is more fragile than the morning dew. Japanese Living life is not like crossing a field. Russian Long life has misery. Latvian There is life and death in the quiver. African Ovambo When life is exhausted, death comes. Vietnamese Mieder — And finally, there is a fourth group of international proverb collections that just lists proverbs from different languages in groups of their own. Gerd de Ley has arranged his International Dictionary of Proverbs in this fash- ion.

He lists proverbs from different nations and languages in English translation, ranging from just a few proverbs to several pages of them per lan- guage. For Iraq he offers the following selection: Iraq A beautiful bride needs no dowry. One night of anarchy does more harm than a hundred years of tyranny. Whoever writes a book, should be ready to accept criticism. Stealing leads to poverty. Sometimes you have to sacrifice your beard in order to save your head.

The poor are the silent of the land. The day will wipe out all the promises of the night. Ley — Unless a collection of this type has at least a comprehensive key-word index of the proverbs, it is extremely difficult to find proverbs dealing with a partic- ular subject among the various languages.

The many bilingual collections follow similar classification systems. The proverbs are arranged either by key words or by general themes. The smaller popular volumes do not contain indices, but the larger dictionaries provide them so that proverbs in both languages can be located with ease. There are, of course, literally hundreds of bilingual collections, once again being of par- ticular use to translators and people acquiring a foreign language.

To be sure, hundreds of collections exist also for the English language, of which many are intended for the popular market. This is especially the case for regional or dialect collections, although they too can adhere to rigid scholarly stan- dards by providing detailed linguistic and historical annotations see bibli- ography.

Regarding the major scholarly English-language proverb collections, it can be said with justifiable pride that the work by Anglo-American paremiogra- phers has served as the model for serious historical proverb dictionaries in other countries.

As early as the s, G. In the s the two friends Archer Taylor and Bartlett Jere Whiting decided to add an American component to this historical survey by jointly assembling A Dic- tionary of American Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases, — And then, while Taylor busied himself with other paremiological and folkloristic projects, the avid reader Bartlett Jere Whiting came out with his important volume of Early American Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases A dozen years later Whiting completed the survey of American references for English- language proverbs with his large collection of Modern Proverbs and Proverbial Sayings Three years later my co-editors Stewart A.

Kingsbury and Kelsie B. Our dictionary is based on thousands of proverbs and their variants collected during to in the United States and parts of Canada, thus giving a picture of the proverbs that were in fact in oral use. Where possible, we provided historical references from the earlier volumes mentioned here. But there are certainly many proverbs in this volume that had not been registered before, taking Anglo-American paremiography a few steps further as well.

It should also be noted that these valuable dictionaries, with the exception of A Dictionary of American Proverbs, also include proverbial expressions, prover- bial comparisons, twin formulas, and at least some wellerisms.

Smith no references, but in the 2nd edition of 12 references from the years twice , , , , , , , , , , no change in the 3rd edition of Tilley 17 references from the years , , , , , , , , twice , , , , , , , Whiting 16 references from the years , , , , twice , , , , twice , twice , , , Taylor and Whiting 3 references from the years , , Whiting 69— 13 references from the years , thrice , , , twice , twice , , , Whiting — 9 references from the years , , , twice , , , , Mieder, Kingsbury, and Harder 6 references of variants recorded in the United States between and Titelman 5 references from the years , , , , This is an imposing historical record of 88 references counting a few dupli- cates.

The following citations represent some highlights, with names of au- thors in whose works they were located in parentheses: Brend child fuir fordredeth. Hendyng O! Chaucer For brent child dredith fyer.

Lydgate Brent chylde fyre dredeth. Caxton For children brent still after drede the fire. Barclay And burnt childe fyre dredth. Heywood A burnt childe dreadeth the fire.

Camden The burnt child dreads the fire. Ray I hope and pray our own country may have wisdom sufficient to keep herself out of the fire. I am sure she has been a sufficiently burnt child. Haliburton As a burnt child would recoil from fire. Gardner A burnt child dreads the fire. Russell Just these few examples suffice to show that as with all folklore, there are vari- ants also of folk proverbs.

The main point is that the consulted nine proverb dictionaries supplied this information in just the time it took to find the proverb under discussion in them. And, to be sure, there are a number of other helpful Anglo-American proverb collections to round out the results see Dent and , Flavell , Hazlitt [], Lean — [, ], Simpson [], etc.

They too are set up according to key words or themes, and many of them are of a more popular nature. It should be noted that it is extremely difficult to ascertain which proverbs might belong to a particular region of the United States see above all Hen- drickson — The problem is even more vexing when scholars have put forth proverb collections of particular states.

Only through painstaking research of each individual proverb might the actual origin come to light, but for many such texts the proof of a Vermont source would be impossible. What is of importance is that many of the proverbs in the present collection probably originated among Vermon- ters and that the rest are without doubt current in the state of Vermont.

It follows that regional or state collections are of considerably higher value if the proverbs were in fact collected from oral sources. Weather proverbs also present a problem since many of them are not really bona fide proverbs in the scholarly interpretation of the proverb genre.

While normal folk proverbs can be used in multiple contexts, many weather proverbs are prognostic signs and do not exhibit any metaphorical character see Arora ; Dundes Their major function is to predict the weather. They are based on long observations of natural phenomena by peo- ple who couched their findings into proverbial form. Since weather proverbs usually contain prognostic statements, they have also been called predictive sayings, weather rules, and weather signs.

Their intent is to establish a causal or logical relationship between two natural events that will predict the weather of the next hour, day, week, month, or even year. Kingsbury and I chose the title Weather Wisdom: Proverbs, Superstitions, and Signs for our annotated collection of over four thousand such sayings that were recorded in North America during the second half of the twentieth century.

While there are a number of major collections registering legal and medi- cal proverbs in German, there are only some minor treatises of them with a few examples in English see Bond ; Elmquist —; Mieder Already Jacob Grimm had shown much interest in rules of law couched in proverbs, with the study of folk law being part of the curriculum of folklore studies at German universities. There are also E. Of course, many other specialized collections could follow on other subjects.

There are plenty of small collections of proverbs on love, animals, plants, the sea, and so on. Of late, paremiographers have also delighted in putting together collections of so-called anti-proverbs, that is, parodied, twisted, or fractured proverbs that reveal humorous or satirical speech play with traditional proverbial wisdom see Mieder and Litovkina ; Mieder As can be seen, anti-proverbs often follow the structure of the original proverb while changing some of the individual words.

The anti-proverbs also indicate clearly that the structure and word- ing of proverbs are by no means sacrosanct. The fixity of proverbs is not as rigid as it once was believed to be.

Unintentional variants have always existed in as much as proverbs are part of folklore, but intentional variations have also been part of the use and function of proverbs, both oral and written.

And yet, more often than not proverbs are cited in their standard traditional form to add some common sense to human communication. Cross-references at the ends of entries correspond to collections listed in the bibliography. Arora, Shirley L. Baer, Florence E. Barley, Nigel. Barrick, Mac E. Blehr, Otto. Bond, Donald F. Brunt, D. Burke, Kenneth. Burke, — Doyle, Charles Clay. Dundes, Alan. Folklore Matters, 92— Knoxville: University of Ten- nessee Press. Dundes, Lauren, Michael D. Streiff, and Alan Dundes.

Elmquist, Russell A. Ezejideaku, E. Gallacher, Stuart A. Festschrift for John G. Kunstmann, no editor given, 45— Geise, Nancy Magnuson. Grzybek, Peter. Honeck, Richard P. Kindstrand, Jan Fredrik. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. Krikmann, Arvo. On Denotative Indefiniteness of Proverbs.

Mieder, Wolfgang. New York: Garland Publishing. Schneider, II, — New York: Oxford University Press. Voces amicorum Guilhelmo Voigt sexagenario, ed. Milner, George. London: Tavistock. Russo, Joseph. Seitel, Peter. Whiting, Bartlett Jere. Definition and Classification 31 Winick, Stephen D. Baltmannsweiler, Germany: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren. Learn about Shared with You. Bring valuable weather information to your apps and services through a wide range of data that can help people stay up to date, safe, and prepared.

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